INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNO V A T ION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)

ISSN No. 2454 -6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | V o lume IX Issue XII December 2025

Factors Contributing to Gender-Based Disparities in Sinhala

Language Achievement among Grade 8 Students in Sri Lanka

R.D.C. Niroshinie¹, S.A.H. Samarasinghe², E.M.Y. Sachith³

¹Senior Lecturer, Department of Educational Psychology, Faculty of Education, University of Colombo,

Sri Lanka

²Lecturer, Maharagama National College of Education, Sri Lanka

³Lecturer, Department of Planning & Evaluation, National Institute of Education, Sri Lanka

DOI: https://doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS.2025.91200106

Received: 11 December 2025; Accepted: 19 December 2025; Published: 01 January 2026

ABSTRACT

Gender differences in assessment of learning outcomes are a notable feature of national assessment in Sri

Lanka, with female students consistently outperforming male students. Such differences can be observed not

only in the results of learning Sinhala language but also in other subjects. Even though language achievement

is a single element in the curriculum, it would form the basis of the overall success of students in their

academic performance and would affect many other subjects which depend on reading comprehension, writing

skill and language proficiency. Thus, the present research explored the reasons for these differences at the

learner level among 485 Grade 8 students selected from an educational division in Sri Lanka. The quantitative

cross-sectional method was used in the research to find out the connections of gender, motivation, self-

efficacy, home literacy environment, and Sinhala language achievement. The outcome of the study was the

discovery of significant differences in gender achievement (Mfemale = 57.73 vs. Mmale = 51.52, p < 0.001, d

= 0.48) where the females scored significantly higher on the scales of motivation, self-efficacy, and home

literacy environments. The results of the multiple regression analysis showed that motivation (β = 0.31, p <

0.001), self-efficacy (β = 0.28, p < 0.001), and the home literacy environment (β = 0.24, p < 0.001) together

accounted for 52% of the variance in Sinhala achievement and significant interaction between the genders was

noted for both motivation and self-efficacy. The research findings emphasize the complexness of the gender-

based differences in the education that is conducted in the mother-tongue and they also provide a solid basis

for conducting the required interventions that are aimed at males as they are the ones mostly affected by the

non-motivational, affective, and environmental factors that result in their poor language learning outcomes.

Keywords: gender disparities, Sinhala language achievement, motivation, self-efficacy, home literacy

environment, Sri Lankan education

INTRODUCTION

Equity in educational outcomes represents a fundamental goal of modern education systems worldwide. In Sri

Lanka, despite the provision of free, universal schooling through a comprehensive network of state schools,

national assessments consistently reveal persistent disparities in student achievement across various

demographic and institutional dimensions (National Education Research and Evaluation Centre [NEREC],

2016). Among these disparities, gender-based differences in language achievement have emerged as a

particularly salient concern, with implications for students' academic trajectories, cognitive development, and

long-term educational engagement.

The language ability in the mother tongue is considered as the basic learning outcome that gives support to the

development of literacy and the broader cognitive capacities, the access to the curriculum in all subjects, and

social participation (Niroshinie, 2023). In the case of Sri Lanka, mastery of Sinhala—the main language of

most of the population—is a precondition for academic success, since it is both a subject and a medium of

instruction in the whole curriculum. National-level assessments of the eighth-grade students have recently

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNO V A T ION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)

ISSN No. 2454 -6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | V o lume IX Issue XII December 2025

revealed that there are systematic differences in the Sinhala language achievement between the sexes, with the

girls always getting better scores than the boys (Niroshinie, 2023).

The differences in gender are consistent with the trends observed in the previous national assessment reports,

which have always pointed out that there are inequalities in achievement according to gender along with other

factors like the type of school, the medium of instruction, and the geographical area (NEREC, 2016; Ministry

of Education, 2022). The fact that these disparities have persisted through so many assessment cycles indicates

that they are rooted in the system. Besides, the widening of the gender gap from primary to lower-secondary

school shows that Grade 8 is such a time where disparities are very apparent, thus making the developmental

stage of the students very critical as far as intervention and research attention is concerned.

The international research on gender and language has come to a consensus that the differences in academic

performance between boys and girls are not a result of innate ability but are rather caused by a combination of

factors: cognitive, motivational, sociocultural, and institutional (Kheder and Rouabhia (2023); OECD, 2021).

Studies from various cultural backgrounds have shown that the factors that cause girls to lag boys in certain

subjects are gender differences in reading engagement, writing motivation, literacy practices, and self-

perceptions of language competence. Nevertheless, the combination of factors that lead to the disparity in

gender performance differs from one educational and cultural context to another; thus, it is necessary to

conduct localized research to understand how these factors work in settings.

In Sri Lanka, while the national assessment reports have acknowledged the presence of gender differences,

there is very little empirical research that has been done to investigate the mechanisms that are producing these

differences. Most of the reports that are currently available only state the mean score differences and do not

consider the learner-level characteristics, home environments, or instructional contexts that might explain the

different achievement patterns of male and female students. This lack of understanding limits the development

of evidence-based interventions that are customized to meet the specific needs of male students who are

underperforming in learning the Sinhala language.

The present study addresses this gap by investigating the factors contributing to gender-based disparities in

Sinhala language achievement among Grade 8 students in Sri Lanka. Drawing on theoretical perspectives from

socioecological theory (Bronfenbrenner, 1994), social cognitive theory (Bandura, 1997), and opportunity-to-

learn frameworks, the research examines how learner-level variables—including motivation, self-efficacy,

home literacy environment, and language attitudes—are associated with Sinhala achievement and how these

associations differ between male and female students. By elucidating the specific factors that contribute most

substantially to gender disparities, this study aims to provide evidence for pedagogical strategies designed to

promote more equitable language learning outcomes.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Gender and Language Achievement: Global Perspectives

Internationally comparative assessments have constantly reported male and female students' differences in

language skills as a major fact in different educational scenarios. PISA and PIRLS, which are large scale

assessments, claim that girls continue to be the successes in reading understanding, writing, and other related

skills, while boys are considered the failures in all these areas (Mullis et al., 2021; OECD, 2021).

Theorizations related to the above-mentioned global pattern demand a multi-faceted approach. According to

cognitive developmental theories, it is girls who undergo the 'earlier' phase of the maturation process in verbal

and language processing skills and thus have a slightly better foothold that with time comes to be the

advantage (Stoet & Geary, 2019). Nevertheless, the difference between genders in this regard is not very large

in all countries, and sometimes the difference disappears over time in one country, thus making it clear that the

biological factor cannot be the sole reason for the disparity in the first place. Sociocultural perspectives

highlight the role of socialization in reading and writing, with girls getting more support and encouragement to

take part in these activities from very young ages (Eagly, 1987). These different paths taken by boys and girls

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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF RESEARCH AND INNO V A T ION IN SOCIAL SCIENCE (IJRISS)

ISSN No. 2454 -6186 | DOI: 10.47772/IJRISS | V o lume IX Issue XII December 2025

in the area of literacy skills end up being noticed by the time they are teenagers in the form of gaps in

achievement.

Gender Disparities in National Assessments in Sri Lanka

National assessments conducted in Sri Lanka mirror these international trends, consistently demonstrating

female advantages in Sinhala language achievement across both primary and secondary schooling (NEREC,

2020; Ministry of Education, 2022). However, the specific factors contributing to these disparities within the

Sri Lankan context remain inadequately understood.

There exists a significant amount of research that sheds light on gendered patterns of literacy engagement

which in turn result in varying outcomes in language learning. It is revealed that girls take part in home-based

reading and other informal literacy experiences more than boys, and this is one of the aspects influenced by

cultural expectations that designate literacy-related activities as more appropriate for girls. The resulting

differential exposure builds up cumulative advantages that make it easier for girls to acquire both basic and

higher literacy skills and thus more girls will be able to read, write, and understand advanced texts.

In addition, teacher expectations support the existing distribution of girls and boys in the literacy development

stage. A report on the perceptions of teachers regarding strengths of the girls and boys in language learning

shows that there is a more positive view of girls’ abilities in language-related tasks (Gunawardena & Lekamge,

2021). This can have a subtle yet significant impact on the nature of instructional interactions. Teachers’

techniques such as giving girls more encouragement, providing them with constructive feedback, and

assigning them cognitively demanding tasks can contribute to the development of positive academic self-

structures and continued motivation among girls.

The report by Aturupane, Shojo, & Ebenezer in 2018 concludes that boys in Sri Lanka are disadvantaged

regarding access and achievement in education: girls have higher enrollment and tertiary enrollment and higher

success rates in major examinations. It also shows that there are considerable gender variations in time spent

by students with friends or watching TV, with boys spending much more time than girls, which could be

interpreted as a sign of low motivation and a cause of under-performance.

Reading and writing outside of school is then the main area suffered by boys in their allocation of time.

Therefore, it can be concluded that the opportunity costs, which are especially high during the middle school

years, accumulate negatively affecting the literacy skill development and consequent academic performance.

The motivational differences constitute an additional aspect of this whole picture. According to studies, boys

report being intrinsically less motivated than girls for the literacy tasks that require the longest time to be

completed such as the ongoing reading and writing of essays. In Sri Lanka, empirical research indicates that

male students have higher likelihood to achieve lesser academic ambitions and lack motivation than their

female counterparts. As an example, a recent survey of students in the Sri Jayawardenapura education zone

discovered that female students have much higher academic ambitions than male students, especially as

regards national examinations and higher educational attainment; the authors report that boys tend to have

short-term career expectations (Alvitigaga,2025). Furthermore, the school atmosphere and teaching methods in

Sri Lankan schools can be the cause of male disengagement without any intention of the school. In a study of

the teaching techniques of English-as-a-Second-Language (ESL), the researchers claim that the current

teaching techniques are biased towards a more feminine type of learning, passive, language-focused and heavy

memorization, whilst providing fewer practical or hands-on learning experiences or competitive learning

methods, which most male learners are allegedly fond of, (Pereira et al., 2025).

Learner-Level Factors and Language Achievement

Home Literacy Environment

The home literacy environment includes the presence of reading materials, the literacy habits of parents, and

family attitudes towards reading and writing. Many studies prove that children living in literacy-rich home

environments develop better language skills and score higher in school-based literacy tests. Therefore,

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differences in home literacy experiences among girls and boys may be one of the factors that lead to

achievement disparities.

Motivation and Attitudes Toward Language Learning

Motivation is viewed as a very important factor for learning in all school subjects, but it may still be a decisive

factor if language proficiency is to be developed since that requires a lot of effort over a long period of time.

According to self-determination theory, there are two different types of motivation: intrinsic (doing something

just for the fun of it) and extrinsic (doing something for a reward or to avoid punishment), with intrinsic

motivation being a stronger predictor of greater learning outcomes in general.

Therefore, students who read Sinhala literature for fun or write stories just for their own sake are still

considered to be at a consistently higher level of achievement as compared to students who only do language

study to meet the school requirements. There could be various factors influencing these differences in

motivation such as one's prior experiences of success or failure, one's perceptions of task relevance, and the

messages from society and culture concerning the importance of literacy for different groups of people.

Another important affective dimension is the attitudes toward the Sinhala language as a subject of study.

Language learning is considered interesting, valuable, and enjoyable by students who are more willing to

invest cognitive effort in language tasks and are more patient when they encounter difficulties. Boys' negative

attitudes toward language learning because of past experiences, peers, or sociocultural factors may act as a

barrier to motivation and involvement and thus limit their performance.

Self-Efficacy in Language Tasks

Self-efficacy endorses the idea that people can master a specific activity having as a basis their confidence in

themselves (Bandura, 1997). Alongside, it has also been acknowledged as one of the top predictors of

academic performance across disciplines. In the case of language learning, learners with high self-efficacy are

likely to take on more difficult tasks, persist in their efforts when a problem arises, and use good learning

strategies. Low self-efficacy students, in contrast, might eschew hard reading and writing, surrender quickly,

and lack the skill development that corresponds with high-level performance.

It is plausible that the self-efficacy differences may both reflect and cause the performance differences. The

cycle begins with the students who are good at reading and writing, they become self-assured in their language

skills, and this self-assurance acts as a stimulus for them to further participate and to exert more effort.

Eventually, they are locked in a feedback loop where self-efficacy, motivation, and success are upholding and

dependent on one another. Conversely, boys who face early challenges or get less support may lose their self-

efficacy and enter a vicious cycle of low effort, poor performance, and further loss of confidence.

Prior Achievement and Cumulative Processes

Any achievement during a child's schooling is basically a reflection of the child's cumulative learning

experiences from his/her early childhood. According to NEREC (2020), the inadequacies of primary

education-literacy skills that are acquired at the primary educational level and then get compounded over time,

hence, the achievement gaps that widen as students mature and go to higher grades. These cumulative

characteristics of literacy have significant meanings in comprehending the gender differences that exist in

middle school.

It is suggested that if boys, compared to girls, stop engagement with literacy activities earlier and have more

frequent difficulties in reading and writing at the primary-level, then these early disadvantages would become

increasingly larger as students get more complex linguistic demands in the later grades. Grade 8 is the point of

a very critical change when students must not only consolidate their basic literacy skills but also develop more

advanced skills in textual analysis, argumentative writing, and the use of formal language. Students who come

to this stage with weak foundational skills are the ones facing the problem of compounding challenges, which,

without intensive intervention, may even be difficult to remediate.

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Theoretical Framework

This research invokes various theoretical frameworks to explain the differences between male and female

students in language performance.

Bronfenbrenner's (1994) socioecological theory is a major framework, which explains development as the

result of interaction between different systems that include the individual, family, school, and the broader

sociocultural context. Gender disparities in language achievement can be seen as resulting from the

complicated interrelations of factors that influence each level of this ecological system rather than from a

single cause.

Social cognitive theory (Bandura, 1997) helps in understanding the role of self-efficacy beliefs, outcome

expectations, and goal-setting processes as intermediaries between environmental influences and achievement

outcomes. According to this view, gender differences in language-related self-efficacy constitute the main

mechanism by which past experiences, social messages, and cultural expectations result in differential

achievement. The development of differential self-efficacy beliefs among boys and girls as well as the

subsequent effects of these beliefs on motivation and performance is the crux of the gender gap explanation.

Opportunity-to-learn (OTL) theory (Schmidt & Burroughs, 2016) states that achievement fundamentally

depends on access to quality instruction, curricular coverage, and learning resources. The formal curriculum

was the same for all students in this research, but according to OTL theory, effective learning opportunities

may differ depending on how students take advantage of the available learning opportunities. Even if there is

formal access to instruction, gender differences in motivation, self-efficacy, and home support may cause

disparities in the opportunities to benefit from teaching.

These theoretical perspectives together point to the fact that gender disparities in Sinhala language

performance are due to the complex, multilevel processes that involve individual traits (motivation, self-

efficacy), domestic environments (literacy resources and practices), and the interaction between these factors.

The current research exemplifies this conceptual framework by investigating learner-level variables that

theoretical framework and previous studies suggest as potential contributors to gender disparities.

Research Questions

This study addressed three primary research questions:

1. What is the gender-based differences in Sinhala language achievement among Grade 8 students in Sri

Lanka?

2. What learner-level factors (motivation, self-efficacy, home literacy environment, attendance, and

language attitudes) are associated with Sinhala language achievement, and do these associations differ

by gender?

3. What recommendations can be derived from these findings for reducing gender-based disparities in

Sinhala language learning outcomes?

METHODOLOGY

Research Design

The study utilized a quantitative, cross-sectional research design to examine the factors that led to gender-

based differences in Sinhala language performance of Grade 8 students. The researchers chose a quantitative

method since it allows them to explore systematically the relationships between several variables, to provide

statistical accuracy when gender differences are analyzed, and to generalize to larger populations. In addition,

the use of a cross-sectional design made it possible to gather data from a wide range of students and schools in

a short time; however, it does not allow determining causality and the direction of the relationships observed.

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Target population and the sample

The target population was Grade 8 students of government schools in the Homagama Education Division area,

Homagama Education Zone, Colombo District, Western Province, Sri Lanka, who study through the medium

of Sinhala. One educational division from the Colombo District was selected as the study site to maintain

geographic coherence and facilitate the administration of the study. To have an adequate representation of

different types of schools that are characteristic of the Sri Lankan education system and to overcome the

problem of selection bias, the authors of this research paper used a stratified random sampling method. Firstly,

schools were divided into different categories according to the classification system of the Ministry of

Education; 1AB schools (offering grades 1-13 with science and commerce streams), 1C schools (offering

grades 1-13 with arts stream only), and Type 2 schools (offering grades 1-11). It was important to do this

stratification as school type is strongly correlated with a significant difference in school resources, teacher

qualifications, and student composition (NEREC, 2016).

After that, schools were randomly selected from the sampling frame of all the schools and the selected

educational division within each school type stratum. In the selected schools through cluster sampling, the

Grade 8 classes were selected and all the students in those classes were invited to take part in the study. This

cluster sampling approach was a good compromise between achieving practical efficiency and securing an

adequate sample size.

The final sample consisted of 485 Grade 8 students (252 female, 233 male) from nine schools that represent

the three types of schools. The sample size was determined through an a priori power analysis, which showed

that about 400 participants would provide enough statistical power (0.80) to detect small-to-medium effect

sizes (f² = 0.05) at an alpha level of 0.05 in multiple regression analyses with up to eight predictors. The actual

sample of 485 was above this minimum requirement, thus, there was enough power for the planned analyses.

The ages of the participants were between 13 and 14 years (M = 13.8, SD = 0.6), and their ages were typical

for Grade 8 in Sri Lanka. The sample comprised students from different socioeconomic backgrounds and thus,

it was representative of the selected school types of socio-economic status. The demographic characteristics of

the sample are shown in Table 1.

Table 1: Sample Characteristics by Gender

Characteristic Female (n=252) Male (n=233) Total (N=485)

Age M(SD)

School Type

1AB

13.7 (0.6)

13.9 (0.6)

13.8 (0.6)

96 (38.1%)

84 (33.3%)

72 (28.6%)

89 (38.2%)

76 (32.6%)

68 (29.2%)

185 (38.1%)

160 (33.0%)

140 (28.9%)

1C

Type 2

Source: Study Data

Data collection instruments

Sinhala Language Achievement test

The dependent variable i.e. Sinhala language achievement was measured through a standardized Grade 8

Sinhala test that was initially designed based on the national curriculum standards. There were in all 50 items

in the test which assessed four main competency areas: reading comprehension (15 items), writing skills (12

items), grammar (13 items), and vocabulary (10 items). Reading comprehension questions require students to

read passages of different lengths and complexities and answer the questions. These questions include literal

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comprehension, inferential reasoning, and critical evaluation. Writing skills consisted of short-answer items

and an extended essay that was evaluated for organizational structure, language use, and content development.

Grammar items were used to check the knowledge of sentence structure, verb conjugation, and morphological

patterns. Vocabulary items measured both receptive vocabulary (word recognition and meaning) and

productive vocabulary (appropriate word use in the context).

The test was implemented in all schools under standardized conditions. The total time allowed was two hours.

The raw scores were changed into percentages, making them more understandable, and it also helped in the

comparison of schools. Reliability as measured by Cronbach's alpha for the total test score was 0.88, which is

quite good. The subscale reliability ranged from 0.72 (vocabulary) to 0.84 (reading comprehension), and they

were all above the minimum levels that are considered acceptable for research purposes.

To ensure that the test reflects the curriculum standards and that it is not too hard or too easy for Grade 8

students, the instrument was first looked at by experts, i.e. experienced Sinhala language teachers and

curriculum specialists. The item difficulty indices were from 0.35 to 0.78, showing that the difficulty levels

varied appropriately. By item-total correlations, the range was from 0.28 to 0.65, which means that the items in

question made a significant contribution to the overall measurement of Sinhala proficiency.

Student Questionnaire

A structured student questionnaire was used to gather information about essential learner-level variables from

the research that were considered as possible contributors to language achievement. The questionnaire was

created through an iterative process that incorporated review of the literature, generation of items, consultation

with experts, and pilot testing with a different sample of Grade 8 students (n = 50) who were not part of the

main study. The questions were prepared in Sinhala at a suitable reading level for Grade 8 students and were

checked for clarity and understandability.

Motivation Toward Sinhala: Student motivation was assessed using a 10-item scale measuring both intrinsic

motivation (e.g., "I enjoy reading Sinhala stories in my free time," "I like writing in Sinhala") and extrinsic

motivation (e.g., "I study Sinhala mainly to get good grades," "I practice writing because my parents expect me

to"). Items used a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). After

reverse-coding negatively worded items, responses were averaged to create a composite motivation score, with

higher scores indicating stronger motivation. Cronbach's alpha for this scale was 0.82, indicating good internal

consistency.

Self-Efficacy in Reading and Writing: Self-efficacy was measured using an 8-item scale adapted from

Bandura's (1997) self-efficacy assessment framework. Items assessed students' confidence in their ability to

successfully perform specific Sinhala language tasks (e.g., "I am confident I can understand difficult Sinhala

texts," "I am confident I can write a well-organized essay in Sinhala," "I can correctly use complex

grammatical structures in my writing"). Items used a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (not at all

confident) to 5 (very confident). Responses were averaged to create a composite self-efficacy score. The scale

demonstrated good reliability (α = 0.85).

Home Literacy Environment: The home literacy environment was assessed using a 12-item scale measuring

multiple dimensions of literacy support at home. Items assessed the availability of reading materials ("How

many Sinhala books do you have at home?"), frequency of literacy activities ("How often do you read Sinhala

newspapers or magazines at home?"), and parental encouragement and involvement ("How often do your

parents ask you about your Sinhala homework?," "How often do your parents encourage you to read Sinhala

books?"). Response formats varied by item type, with frequency items using a five-point scale (1 = never, 5 =

every day) and quantity items using ordinal categories (e.g., none, 1-10 books, 11-25 books, 26-50 books,

more than 50 books). Items were standardized and averaged to create a composite home literacy environment

score. Cronbach's alpha for this scale was 0.79.

Language Attitudes: Student attitudes toward Sinhala as a subject were measured using a 6-item scale (e.g.,

"Sinhala is an interesting subject," "Learning Sinhala is important for my future," "I enjoy Sinhala period").

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Items used on a five-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree). Responses were averaged to

create a composite attitude score (α = 0.77).

Attendance: Student attendance was assessed through two sources: self-reported frequency of absence ("In the

past month, how many days did you miss school?") and school records. Because school attendance records

were incomplete in some schools, the self-report measure was used as the primary attendance indicator. This

variable was reverse coded so that higher scores indicated better attendance.

Procedure

After receiving approvals from the provincial and zonal education offices, permission was obtained from

school principals to conduct the study. Then, consent forms and information sheets were handed out to parents

via students, and a two-week period was allowed for parents to scrutinize the materials and give their written

consent if they agreed to their child's participation.

In each school, data collection occurred in two stages on the same day. Initially, the Sinhala achievement test

was given to students following uniform standards in regular classrooms during the school day. Students were

given two hours to complete the test. A short break was given to the students for 15 minutes. After that they

filled out the questionnaire measuring their motivation, self-efficacy, home literacy environment, attitudes, and

attendance. Completion of the questionnaire took around 30-40 minutes. To protect anonymity while allowing

matching of the two data sources, both the test and questionnaire used unique numerical codes instead of

student names.

Data Analysis

Data analysis proceeded in several stages using both descriptive and inferential statistical techniques. First,

preliminary analyses examined data quality, including checks for missing data patterns, outliers, and violations

of statistical assumptions. Missing data were minimal (< 3% for any variable) and appeared to be missing

completely at random based on Little's MCAR test, χ²(47) = 52.34, p = 0.28. Cases with missing data were

retained in the dataset, with pairwise deletion used for specific analyses.

Descriptive statistics, including means, standard deviations, and frequency distributions, were calculated for all

study variables, both overall and disaggregated by gender. These descriptive analyses provided an initial

picture of gender differences in achievement and learner characteristics.

To address the first research question regarding gender differences in Sinhala achievement, an independent

samples t-test compared mean achievement scores for male and female students. Cohen's d was calculated to

quantify the magnitude of gender differences using the pooled standard deviation. Following Cohen's (1988)

conventions, d = 0.20 was considered a small effect, d = 0.50 a medium effect, and d = 0.80 a large effect.

To examine the second research question regarding learner-level factors associated with achievement, several

analytic approaches were employed. First, Pearson correlation coefficients were calculated to examine

bivariate relationships between each learner-level variable and Sinhala achievement, both for the total sample

and separately by gender. Fisher's r-to-z transformations tested whether correlation magnitudes differed

significantly between male and female students.

Next, hierarchical multiple regression analysis was conducted to identify which learner-level factors most

strongly predicted Sinhala achievement while controlling demographic characteristics. The regression was

structured in three steps: (1) demographic control variables (school type, age) were entered in the first block;

(2) learner-level predictors (motivation, self-efficacy, home literacy environment, attitudes, attendance) were

entered in the second block; and (3) interaction terms between gender and each learner-level predictor were

entered in the third block to test whether the relationships between learner factors and achievement differed by

gender. Significant interactions were probed using simple slopes analysis to characterize the nature of gender

differences in predictor-outcome relationships.

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Prior to conducting regression analyses, assumptions were verified including linearity (through examination of

scatterplots), normality of residuals (through Q-Q plots and Kolmogorov-Smirnov tests), homoscedasticity

(through residual plots), and absence of multicollinearity (through variance inflation factors). All assumptions

were adequately satisfied, supporting the appropriateness of regression analyses. All statistical tests were two-

tailed with alpha set at 0.05. Effect sizes were reported for all major findings to facilitate interpretation of

practical significance beyond statistical significance.

Ethical Considerations

The study adhered to rigorous ethical standards throughout all phases. Approval was obtained from the

university's institutional review board prior to any data collection. Additionally, formal permission was secured

from the Ministry of Education and relevant provincial and zonal education offices, ensuring compliance with

Sri Lankan educational research regulations.

The informed consent was obtained at multiple levels. School principals provided institutional consent after

receiving detailed information about the study's purposes, procedures, and data protection measures. Parents

received information sheets explaining the study and were asked to provide written consent for their child's

participation. Students themselves provided assent after the researcher explained the study in age-appropriate

language, emphasizing that participation was completely voluntary and would not affect their school grades.

Participants were informed of their right to withdraw from the study at any time. No students who initially

consented subsequently withdrew from participation. All data were de-identified using numerical codes, with

the key linking codes to student identities stored separately in a secure, password-protected file. Test scores

and questionnaire responses were anonymized in all datasets used for analysis and presentation of findings.

RESULTS

Descriptive Statistics and Gender Differences

In Table 2, descriptive statistics of all study variables are shown, not only overall but also by gender. Based on

national assessment data, which were the basis of our expectations, the female students proved to be

significantly ahead of their male counterparts in terms of Sinhala language achievement. The mean

achievement score of females was 57.73 (SD=12.84), whereas that of males was 51.52 (SD=13.67). The

difference of 6.21 percentage points was found to be statistically significant, t(483) = 5.12, p < 0.001, and was

equivalent to the medium effect size (Cohen's d = 0.48). Among the females, roughly 60% were above the

overall mean for the sample, while this ratio was only 40% among the males, thus, showing the considerable

practical importance of this gender difference.

Table 2 : Descriptive Statistics and Gender Comparisons

Variable

Total Sample Female Students Male Students t

p

Cohen's d

M (SD)

Sinhala Achievement (%)

Motivation

54.79 (13.58) 57.73 (12.84)

51.52 (13.67)

3.32 (0.72)

3.21 (0.79)

3.02 (0.69)

3.54 (0.69)

18.0 (3.1)

5.12 <.001 0.48

8.96 <.001 0.81

7.21 <.001 0.66

5.89 <.001 0.54

6.17 <.001 0.57

4.23 <.001 0.39

3.62 (0.74)

3.48 (0.81)

3.89 (0.68)

3.72 (0.76)

3.38 (0.64)

3.92 (0.65)

19.1 (2.4)

Self-Efficacy

Home-Literacy Environment 3.21 (0.68)

Language Attitudes

3.74 (0.69)

18.6 (2.8)

Attendance (days present)

Source: Study Data

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Examination of achievement by subscale revealed that gender differences were consistent across the four

competency areas assessed by the Sinhala test. Female students scored higher than male students in reading

comprehension (Mfemale = 59.2% vs. Mmale = 53.8%, d = 0.43), writing skills (Mfemale = 56.8% vs. Mmale

= 48.7%, d = 0.58), grammar (Mfemale = 58.1% vs. Mmale = 52.4%, d = 0.47), and vocabulary (Mfemale =

57.3% vs. Mmale = 51.9%, d = 0.45). The largest gender difference appeared in writing skills, consistent with

international research identifying writing as an area of female advantage.

Besides the differences in achievements, the learners' level variables showed large gender differences all over

the period. Females gave much more than males (i.e., M = 3.89 vs. M = 3.32) the average for motive in

learning Sinhala, t(483) = 8.96, p < 0.001, d = 0.81. The size of the effect was very large, which meant that the

difference in motivation related to gender was even more than the difference in achievements related to gender.

The same pattern of gender differences was evident in self-efficacy reported by female students who were

involved in reading and writing tasks (M = 3.72 vs. M = 3.21), t(483) = 7.21, p < 0.001, d = 0.66.

Female students also reported more supportive home literacy environments (M = 3.38 vs. M = 3.02), t(483) =

5.89, p < 0.001, d = 0.54, more positive attitudes toward Sinhala as a subject (M = 3.92 vs. M = 3.54), t(483) =

6.17, p < 0.001, d = 0.57, and better attendance (M = 19.1 days vs. M = 18.0 days present in the past month),

t(483) = 4.23, p < 0.001, d = 0.39. These consistent patterns across multiple learner characteristics suggested

that gender differences in Sinhala achievement emerged from a constellation of interrelated factors rather than

any single variable.

In Table 3, the Pearson correlation coefficients that investigate the interactions between learner-level factors

and the achievement in Sinhala are displayed, both for the entire sample and by gender separately. All the

predictors expected showed significant positive correlations with achievement in the entire sample. Among the

predictors, motivation had the highest bivariate correlation with the achievement in Sinhala (r = 0.58, p <

0.001), and it was followed by self-efficacy (r = 0.54, p < 0.001), home literacy environment(r = 0.48, p <

0.001), language attitudes (r = 0.46, p < 0.001), and attendance (r = 0.31, p < 0.001) respectively.

Table 3: Correlations Between Learner-Level Variables and Sinhala Achievement

Variable

Total Sample Female Students Male Students Z-test

Motivation

Self-Efficacy

.58***

.54***

.52***

.48***

.44***

.42***

.28***

.61***

.58***

.50***

.49***

.33***

1.87

2.08*

1.12

1.34

0.89

Home Literacy Environment .48***

Language Attitudes

Attendance

.46***

.31***

Note. ***p < 0.001, *p < 0.05 for Z-tests comparing correlation magnitudes between genders.

Source: Study Data

According to gender-stratified analyses, it was unveiled that all the predictors were significantly associated

with the achievement of male and female students, but some of the connections were more applicable to male

students. The correlation between self-efficacy and achievement which was represented by male students (r =

0.58) was significantly greater than the one of female students (r = 0.48), z = 2.08, p < 0.05. This trend

indicated that self-efficacy would be a major factor affecting the language achievement of male students. On

this same note, however, motivation did have the slightest tendency to manifest a stronger relationship with the

achievement of male students (r = 0.61) as compared to female students (r = 0.52), z = 1.87, p = 0.06.

The inter-correlation among the predictor variables was from r = 0.34 to r = 0.62 which suggested that the

learner characteristics were significantly correlated but still distinguished different constructs rather than being

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redundant measurements of one dimension. The moderate inter-correlation backed up the decision to use all

variables in the multivariate analysis while at the same time indicating that multicollinearity would not be a

problem for regression modeling.

Hierarchical multiple regression analysis examined which learner-level factors most strongly predicted Sinhala

achievement while controlling for demographic characteristics (Table 4). In Step 1, demographic control

variables (school type and age) explained 11% of variance in Sinhala achievement (R² = 0.11, F(3, 481) =

19.87, p < 0.001). School type emerged as a significant predictor, with students in 1AB schools scoring

approximately 5 percentage points higher than those in Type 2 schools (β = 0.28, p < 0.001), reflecting well-

documented resource and quality differences across school types in Sri Lanka.

Table 4: Hierarchical Multiple Regression Predicting Sinhala Language Achievement

Predictor

Step 1

Step 2

Step 3

β

SE

β

SE

β

SE

Step 1: Demographics

School Type (1AB)

School Type (1C)

0.28***

0.14**

-0.06

1.42 0.18***

1.38 0.09*

1.24 -0.04

1.18 0.17***

1.15 0.09*

1.02 -0.03

1.16

1.13

1.00

Age

Step 2: Learner-Level Factors

Gender (Female = 1)

Motivation

0.12**

0.31***

0.28***

0.24***

0.14**

0.09*

1.48 0.11**

0.92 0.29***

0.84 0.27***

0.98 0.23***

0.79 0.13**

0.24 0.09*

1.45

0.90

0.82

0.96

0.77

0.23

Self-Efficacy

Home Literacy Environment

Language Attitudes

Attendance

Step 3: Gender Interactions

Gender × Motivation

Gender × Self-Efficacy

Gender × Home Literacy

Gender × Attitudes

Gender × Attendance

-0.11*

-0.13**

-0.06

0.52

0.48

0.45

0.44

0.18

-0.08

-0.04

R²

ΔR²

F

0.11***

0.52***

0.41***

52.34***

0.54***

0.02**

19.87***

42.18***

Note. β = standardized regression coefficient; SE = standard error. ***p < 0.001, **p < 0.01, *p < 0.05

Source: Study Data

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In Step 2, adding learner-level predictors substantially increased explained variance (ΔR² = 0.41, F(6, 475) =

67.89, p < 0.001). The full model at Step 2 explained 52% of variance in Sinhala achievement (R² = 0.52, F(9,

475) = 52.34, p < 0.001), representing a large effect size and indicating that learner-level factors account for

substantial variability in language achievement beyond demographic and school characteristics.

Gender remained a significant predictor even after controlling for all learner-level variables (β = 0.12, p <

0.01), indicating that being female was associated with approximately 1.6 percentage points higher

achievement holding all other factors constant. However, the standardized coefficient for gender was

substantially reduced from what would be observed in a model without learner-level predictors, suggesting that

gender differences in motivation, self-efficacy, and home environment partially mediate the overall gender gap

in achievement.

Among learner-level predictors, motivation emerged as the strongest individual predictor (β = 0.31, p < 0.001),

indicating that a one standard deviation increase in motivation was associated with a 0.31 standard deviation

increase in Sinhala achievement, or approximately 4.2 percentage points. Self-efficacy (β = 0.28, p < 0.001)

and home literacy environment (β = 0.24, p < 0.001) also demonstrated substantial predictive power. Language

attitudes (β = 0.14, p < 0.01) and attendance (β = 0.09, p < 0.05) showed smaller but still significant

relationships with achievement.

In Step 3, interaction terms between gender and each learner-level predictor were added to test whether the

relationships between predictors and achievement differed for male and female students. The interaction block

explained an additional 2% of variance (ΔR² = 0.02, F(5, 470) = 4.12, p < 0.01), indicating that some

predictor-achievement relationships were indeed moderated by gender.

Two interaction terms reached statistical significance. The Gender × Motivation interaction (β = -0.11, p <

0.05) indicated that the relationship between motivation and achievement was stronger for male students than

for female students. Simple slopes analysis revealed that for male students, the relationship between

motivation and achievement was β = 0.37 (p < 0.001), compared to β = 0.26 (p < 0.001) for female students.

This pattern suggested that while motivation predicted achievement for both genders, increases in motivation

were associated with larger achievement gains for boys than for girls.

The Gender × Self-Efficacy interaction (β = -0.13, p < 0.01) showed a similar pattern. Self-efficacy

demonstrated a stronger relationship with achievement for male students (β = 0.35, p < 0.001) than for female

students (β = 0.22, p < 0.001). Together, these interaction effects suggested that motivational and self-belief

factors were particularly consequential for male students' language achievement, perhaps because boys' lower

average levels of motivation and self-efficacy created greater variability in achievement within this group.

Regression diagnostics confirmed that model assumptions were satisfied. Variance inflation factors ranged

from 1.24 to 2.18, well below the threshold indicating problematic multicollinearity (VIF < 10). Examination

of residual plots revealed no systematic patterns, supporting assumptions of linearity and homoscedasticity.

The distribution of standardized residuals approximated normality (skewness = 0.08, kurtosis = -0.15), with no

evidence of influential outliers based on Cook's distance values (all < 0.15).

DISCUSSION

This research focused on uncovering the learner-level factors that were responsible for the gender-based

differences in the performance of Sinhala language among the eighth graders. The findings confirmed that

there were quite large gender differences in the performance, as girls were able to score about 6 percentage

points more than boys on average, which corresponds to a medium effect size (d = 0.48). However, the most

significant fact that came out of the research was that motivation, self-efficacy, and home literacy environment

were the main factors responsible for these disparities, together accounting for 52% of the variance in students'

achievement in Sinhala. The results obtained from this research have very well supported the view of a

multifaceted understanding of gender differences in first-language education and have pointed to specific areas

in need of intervention.

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Magnitude and Nature of Gender Disparities

The gender gap in Sinhala achievement that has been observed corresponds not only to the local assessment

data (Niroshinie, 2023; NEREC, 2020) but also to the international female preference in language learning

documented by researchers (OECD, 2021). The effect size value of d = 0.48 points to a significant difference

in education that probably affects students' academic paths, self-esteem, and involvement in reading and

writing activities, among others. Gender differences, however, were noted in all four competency areas of

reading comprehension, writing, grammar, and vocabulary where there were no exceptions, indicating that

male students' difficulties are not limited to certain skill areas but rather encompass the whole aspect of

learning Sinhala language.

The largest gender differences were found to be in the writing skill area (d = 0.58), a fact that warrants special

attention. Writing is the most mentally taxing and coordinated language skill since it requires the student to

cope with ideation, organization, language selection, grammar, and mechanics at the same time. The fact that

boys have their largest disparity in this area indicates that they are experiencing difficulties with self-

regulation, sustained effort, and metacognitive planning that effective writing requires. This tendency has a

significant impact on the teaching and learning process, making educators think that boys might need more

help than girls when it comes to explicit strategy instruction, writing frameworks, and planning and revision

processes.

Role of Motivation in Achievement and Gender Disparities

Motivation appeared as the strongest predictor of Sinhala achievement in the regression analysis (β = 0.31).

This highlights the important role of engagement and interest in language learning. Notably, female students

reported significantly higher motivation than male students (d = 0.81). This difference in motivation partly

explains the gender gap in achievement. The significant Gender × Motivation interaction showed that

motivation had a particularly strong impact on male students' achievement. Among boys, those with high

motivation achieved at levels similar to female students, while those with low motivation had considerable

achievement gaps.

These findings support self-determination theory, which stresses that intrinsic motivation drives learning

(Karunaratne, 2021). Students who engage with Sinhala learning because they find it interesting or enjoyable

put in more effort, keep trying with tough tasks, and use deeper processing strategies compared to those

motivated mainly by outside factors. The gender difference in motivation likely comes from ongoing

experiences throughout many years of schooling. If boys face early challenges with reading and writing, these

difficulties may lower their motivation, creating a negative cycle. Low motivation leads to less engagement,

which results in poor achievement, further decreasing motivation.

The strong relationship between motivation and achievement for male students suggests that focusing on boys'

engagement could significantly reduce gender disparities. Teaching methods that show the relevance of Sinhala

learning, offer choice and freedom, use texts and topics that interest boys, and create opportunities for success

may help break the cycle of low motivation and poor achievement. However, it's essential to understand that

motivation is both a cause and a result of achievement. Increasing boys' motivation should enhance their

learning, but the achievement gains may be necessary to sustain motivational improvements in the long run.

Self-Efficacy as a Mechanism of Gender Differences

perceptual and less impacted by differences in self-efficacy beliefs.

Self-efficacy—students' beliefs about their capabilities to successfully perform language tasks—together with

achievement were correlated strongly (β = 0.28) and showed large gender difference (d = 0.66). The significant

Gender × Self-Efficacy interaction suggested that self-efficacy beliefs were particularly indicative of the male

students' achievement. This pattern indicates that boys' lack of confidence in their English skills can be both a

symptom and a cause of their poor performance in the subject.

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Social cognitive theory (Bandura, 1997) posits that self-efficacy has an indirect influence on achievement

through several paths. High self-efficacy students set higher goals, endure longer in the face of hardship, use

more effective learning strategies and have less anxiety during assessment. On the other hand, low self-

efficacy students may tend to avoid hard tasks, quit quickly if they meet some obstacles and suffer from so

much anxiety that their performance is affected. If boys form a lower self-efficacy for English based on their

previous experience of difficulties or take social message about girls being more suited to language learning as

the one for them, these beliefs could lead to a situation where boys' self-fulfilling prophecies keep the

achievement gap open.

The result that self-efficacy was more a predictor of achievement for male students than for female ones is

extremely important. It could be inferred from such a pattern that among boys’ self-efficacy beliefs might be

highly changeable and consequential. High self-efficacy boys (may be because of early success or nurturing)

perform quite well, while low self-efficacy boys (probably due to early struggles or unencouraging

experiences) are left far behind. In the case of girls, differences in achievement might be more uni-perceptual

and not so much influenced by variance in self-efficacy beliefs.

Home Literacy Environment and Socialization Processes

Home literacy environment was a significant predictor of Sinhala achievement ((β = 0.24) and had a large

gender difference (d = 0.54), as the female students claimed higher levels of supportive literacy environments

at home. This observation is consistent with the studies highlighting the background influence of home

experiences in determining language development. Children that are exposed to a lot of reading materials,

observing their relatives reading and being encouraged to practice language skills gain better language skills

and more favorable views of reading and writing. The difference in gender in home literacy experiences may

be explained by a couple of overlapping factors. In some cases, parents (unconsciously) can encourage reading

and writing among their boys and girls, particularly when they believe that literacy is more suitable or

important among girls. In the meantime, the parents could be influenced by the tendency of the children

themselves. When boys demonstrate less interest in reading or disliking literacy activities, parents may

gradually provide them with less opportunities in the form of a tug-of-war pattern that may eventually create

the gap between children as they grow. That home literacy environment was predicting achievement in the

context of motivation and self-efficacy control, indicates that the positive effect of supportive home

environment may not merely come in the form of positive attitude development. Home literacy practices can

offer a chance to develop skills (exposure to vocabulary via reading, experience with written language) and

demonstrate the usefulness and worth of literacy in a normal daily life. These experiences are especially

relevant in middle childhood and early adolescence when students are building up more advanced language

competencies.

From an intervention perspective, these findings suggest potential value in family engagement programs

designed to support boys' literacy development at home. Such programs might help parents understand the

importance of reading aloud to older children (not just young children), provide suggestions for texts that

might interest boys, and offer strategies for encouraging reluctant readers. However, it is important to

recognize that home literacy environment is itself influenced by socioeconomic factors. Families with limited

resources may have fewer books available and less time for shared literacy activities regardless of their

intentions. Thus, school-based interventions that provide rich literacy experiences for all students remain

essential.

Language Attitudes and Attendance

Language attitudes (β = 0.14) and attendance (β = 0.09) revealed minor yet still noteworthy correlations with

achievement. Girls had gained more positive attitudes toward Sinhala subject (d = 0.57) and better school

attendance (d = 0.39) than boys. Though these factors were less effective individually in explaining variance

than motivation, self-efficacy, and home environment, they still together with the female students’ factors

contributed to the overall constellation of factors supporting their superior achievement.

The relationship between attitudes and achievement most likely works in both directions. Students regarding

Sinhala as interesting and important are more inclined to put forth the effort in their learning, and at the same

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time, success in Sinhala classes leads to the reinforcement of positive attitudes. Likewise, regular school

attendance means that instruction and practice opportunities are given, thus supporting achievement, while a

student who finds it difficult to cope with Sinhalese may be more likely not to attend school. These

interrelations highlight the systemic nature of gender disparities—differences arise from factors that are

mutually reinforcing and have a long-time frame, not from single causes.

Integration with Theoretical Frameworks

The results of the current study corroborate well with the theoretical framework, which is underpinned by

socioecological theory (Bronfenbrenner, 1994), social cognitive theory (Bandura, 1997), and opportunity-to-

learn frameworks (Schmidt & Burroughs, 2016). According to the socioecological approach, the gender gap in

Sinhala achievement is the result of the interplay of several interacting systems on different levels. Motivation

and self-efficacy are the individual-level factors that have the most direct impact on learning. The family

literacy environment at the microsystem stage represents the home processes that either foster or hinder

language growth. The links between home and school—the “overlapping” zone of the household and school

situations, like the alignment of parents' literacy values with school expectations—may be the case when the

mesosystem has an accentuated effect.

One of the many advantages of the application of social cognitive theory to this study is the clarification it

provides regarding the very mechanisms through which self-efficacy beliefs interact with experiences and

learning success. The finding that boys’ lower self-efficacy is one of the reasons why they are less proficient in

their studies than girls support Bandura’s (1997) assertion that self-belief is one of the major factors

determining the outcome of the learning process. Also, the fact that there is a stronger relationship between

self-efficacy and performance in the case of male students suggests that self-efficacy might be very volatile

and powerful within this group, perhaps because of the prevailing social attitudes that learning a language is

more appropriate for girls, which in turn, results in the boys' confidence being undermined.

The theory of opportunity to learn contends that the key factor in determining and maintaining higher

educational achievement is quality of instruction and the learning resources provided. The entire group of

students participating in the study had access to the same formal curriculum; however, the results point out that

the effective opportunity was different depending on the students' characteristics. The students have high

motivation, strong self-efficacy, and supportive.

Practical Implications

The above findings carry important implications for educational practice aimed at reducing gender disparities

in Sinhala language achievement:

1. Motivation-Enhancing Instructional Practices

The fact that motivation showed the strongest relationship with success and also pointed out the difference

between genders, it becomes important to apply the methods which will outdo boys' participation in the

learning of Sinhala in the first place. The following could be some of the effective approaches:

•

Incorporating texts and topics aligned with boys' interests (adventure, sports, technology, humor) while

maintaining literary quality and curriculum alignment

Providing choice in reading materials and writing topics, allowing students to pursue personally

meaningful literacy activities

Using collaborative learning structures such as literature circles or peer editing groups that leverage

social interaction to support engagement

Emphasizing real-world applications of Sinhala competencies, helping students see language skills as

relevant to their lives and future goals

Celebrating diverse forms of literacy beyond traditional academic texts, including digital media,

graphic novels, informational texts, and multimodal compositions

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2. Building Self-Efficacy Through Mastery Experiences

The strong relationship between self-efficacy and achievement, specifically for male students, suggests that

interventions targeting boys' self-confidence in their language abilities could noticeably improve outcomes.

The following could be some of the effective approaches:

•

Providing scaffolded instruction that ensures regular experiences of success, gradually releasing

support as competence develops

Teaching specific reading and writing strategies explicitly, helping students develop concrete tools for

approaching language tasks

Using formative assessment to provide timely, specific feedback that helps students recognize their

progress and identify areas for continued growth

Creating classroom cultures that normalize struggle and emphasize growth, helping students develop

incremental theories of language ability

Encouraging attributions linking success to controllable factors (effort, strategy use) rather than fixed

traits

3. Family Engagement and Home Literacy Support

The significant relationship between home literacy environment and achievement suggests potential value in

programs designed to support boys' literacy development at home:

•

Providing workshops helping parents understand the continued importance of reading aloud and shared

literacy activities during early adolescence

•

Offering suggestions for texts and topics that might engage boys who are reluctant readers

Creating lending libraries with diverse, high-interest materials available for students to take home

Communicating regularly with families about students' progress and specific ways to support language

development at home

•

Recognizing socioeconomic barriers to home literacy support and ensuring that school provides rich

literacy experiences for all students regardless of home resources

4. Gender-Responsive Pedagogy

While avoiding stereotyping or essentializing gender differences, teachers can benefit from awareness of the

factors associated with gender disparities:

•

Monitoring participation patterns to ensure that boys receive equal opportunities to engage in

discussions, receive feedback, and demonstrate competence

Reflecting on whether classroom practices might inadvertently advantage students with learning styles

or preferences

Using varied instructional approaches that appeal to diverse learners rather than relying exclusively on

methods that may favor certain groups

Examining assessment practices to ensure they evaluate genuine language competencies rather than

compliance or presentation skills that might advantage certain students

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LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS

Several limitations should be considered when interpreting these findings. The cross-sectional design restricts

the ability to draw causal conclusions about the direction of relationships between learner characteristics and

achievement. Although existing theory indicates that motivation and self-efficacy can influence achievement,

the opposite pattern—where achievement shapes these factors—is also plausible. Longitudinal research that

follows students across multiple time points would provide a clearer understanding of temporal sequencing and

allow examination of reciprocal effects.

Most learner-related variables, aside from achievement, were gathered through self-report questionnaires. Such

measures may be influenced by social desirability and may not accurately represent students’ actual behaviors

or beliefs. For example, reports of the home literacy environment may reflect what students believe they

should say rather than their true experiences. Incorporating observational methods, parent reports, or

alternative measures could help address this limitation.

The study drew its sample from a single educational division, which constrains the generalizability of the

results. Although various school types were included, broader sampling across additional districts and

provinces would enhance confidence in applying these findings to the wider student population.

The focus on learner-level variables meant that teacher and school characteristics—factors that may also shape

gender differences—were not examined. In addition, the study relied on aggregate achievement scores, which

may mask variation across specific literacy skills. More fine-grained analyses could identify areas of disparity

and help inform targeted interventions.

CONCLUSION

This study presents clear proof that the differences in language achievements by gender in Grade 8 students of

the Sinhala language are at the root of the systematic differences in motivation, self-efficacy, and home literacy

environment. The learner-level mentioned factors explain 52% of the differences in achievement. Though the

male students have shown low language ability, they possess such low levels of motivation, confidence in their

language skills, the quality of their home literacy environments, and negative attitudes toward language

learning as well. The association between these learner factors and achievement is specifically strong for boys,

implying that if the circumstances around motivation and self-efficacy were changed, the gaps between

genders could be reduced substantially.

The results have added to the gender and language achievement debate in a few important ways. They

provided evidence from the local context of Sri Lanka, which is similar to the trends seen globally. They have

also built upon earlier studies by spotting specific learner-level reasons that are responsible for the disparities

in achievement, thus giving very specific areas for intervention. In addition, they have revealed that gender

plays a role in these relationships with the case of motivation and affectivity being more pronounced for boys.

From an educational policy and practice perspective, the findings underscore the necessity of comprehensive

and multi-faceted measures to tackle the problem of gender inequality in Sinhala language achievement. The

motivating factors, emotional aspects, and home environments should be the subjects of the implementation of

the approaches, rather than instructional changes only. For instance, schools can help boys' language learning

by providing reading materials that correspond to their interests, increasing self-efficacy through instruction

and strategy training that is supported, and involving families in the process.

Disclosure Statement

The authors declare that no conflicts of interest relate to the research, authorship, or publication of this article.

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