Integrating Design Thinking within the R2D2 Instructional Design Model: A Pedagogical Framework for Conceptual Design Process in Design Education

Design Thinking is widely adopted in design education to foster creativity and innovation; however, its pedagogical implementation often lacks instructional clarity and consistent approaches to learning design and assessment. Design Thinking is frequently presented as a sequence of stages, which can obscure the underlying learning demands and provide limited guidance for educators. At the same time, instructional design models offer structure but are rarely aligned with the iterative and exploratory nature of design learning. This article proposes an integrated pedagogical framework that aligns Design Thinking with the ‘Read, Reflect, Display, Do’ (R2D2) instructional design model. Using a conceptual framework development approach, Design Thinking phases are analysed in terms of their dominant cognitive and social learning demands, while R2D2 is interpreted as flexible instructional engagement modes rather than a linear sequence. The framework specifies phase-to-mode alignments, associated learning activities, observable learning artefacts, and indicative educator and learner roles. By making reflection, representation, and action explicit, the framework supports more coherent pedagogy, inclusive participation, and transparent assessment of creativity and innovation in conceptual design education.